Chemistry of batteries

 Potentiometric Titration Introduction Potentiometric titration is a quantitative analytical technique used to determine the concentration of a substance (analyte) by measuring the potential difference (voltage) between two electrodes as a titrant is added. Unlike traditional titrations that rely on visual indicators, potentiometric titrations provide a more objective and often more accurate determination of the equivalence point, especially for colored or turbid solutions, or when suitable indicators are unavailable.               1. Fundamental Principle Measurement of Potential: The core principle involves continuously monitoring the change in the electromotive force (EMF) or potential of an electrochemical cell formed during the titration. Electrode System: This cell typically consists of: A sensing (indicator) electrode whose potential is sensitive to the concentration of the analyte (or titrant) ion. A reference electrode whose pote...

  Galvanic cell   1. Introduction to Galvanic Cells     Definition : A galvanic cell is a device that generates an electric current from a spontaneous chemical reaction.   Historical Context: Named after Luigi Galvani (who observed muscle contractions in frogs due to electrical stimulation) and Alessandro Volta (who invented the first battery, the voltaic pile).   Key Principle: The separation of oxidation and reduction half-reactions, allowing electron transfer to occur through an external circuit.     2. Components of a Galvanic Cell   A typical galvanic cell consists of the following essential components:     Anode:       The electrode where oxidation occurs (loss of electrons).       It is the negative terminal of the galvanic cell.       Electrons flow from the anode.   Cathode:       The electrode where reduction ...